What is now considered the sciences of cosmology and astrophysics is entirely built on the “law of universal gravitation” formulated by Isaac Newton in 1687.
According to Newton, between any pair of bodies there is a force of mutual attraction. How bodies pull other bodies towards themselves, Newton did not explain, saying: “I do not invent hypotheses.”
An alternative to Newton’s theory was formulated in 1690 by Nicola Fatio de Duillier and repeated in 1756 by Georges Louis LeSage. They presented the kinetic theory of gravity: certain particles appear in empty space and disappear in material objects, thereby exerting pressure on them. That is, gravitation is the screening of other material objects by some material objects from the designated particles. But these thinkers did not present a formula for the interaction of bodies, and their opinion was not taken into account. (The reason, apparently, is that, as it were, scientists believe that the world was created by God, and God, according to their ideas, thinks in mathematical formulas …)
At the beginning of the 20th century, Newton’s “law of universal gravitation” was corrected by theorist Albert Einstein for the speed of movement and the mass of interacting objects. The corrections are presented in the form of two theories contradicting each other (the Special Theory of Relativity postulates the absolute emptiness of space, and the General Theory of Relativity postulates a “space-time continuum”, as if replacing this emptiness). Einstein also postulated the alleged cause of gravity – “the curvature of the” space-time continuum “.
Newton’s formula: F = gMm/r^2, where F is the interaction force, g is the gravitational constant, M and m are the masses of the interacting bodies, r is the distance between them.
Newton’s formula is fundamentally false. In Newton’s formula, the masses of two bodies bound by gravity are multiplied. Multiplication is addition. You can only multiply a named number by an abstract number. To multiply a certain value, you need to take its terms several times and find the sum of all these terms. The product always produces a named number that is homogeneous with the multiplicand, and the units of measurement are also homogeneous with the multiplicand.
Based on Newton’s false formula, the following were calculated: the mass of the Earth; distances between the planets of the solar system; the masses of the planets of the solar system; the mass of the Sun and the distance to it, which gave the stellar magnitude of the Sun and, compared with the stellar magnitudes of other stars, the distances to them; Galaxy dimensions, distances between galaxies…
Observations have shown the discrepancy between Newton’s formula and reality.
For example, the first American Earth satellite Explorer I around the Earth was expected at approximately 0 hours 30 minutes Eastern time on February 1, 1958, but actually circled the Earth for 12 minutes longer. This was never explained. All satellites and interplanetary stations had the same problems, as well as stations that went beyond the solar system … Such problems were with the calculation of the orbits of asteroids. Well, the movement of interplanetary stations does not coincide with the calculations of this movement according to Newton’s formula, only the correction of orbits by engines helps to get where you need to, and even then not always …
The radar of Venus also did not confirm the distance to it calculated by Newton’s formula. To “explain” the discrepancy, theorists invented a signal delay in the atmosphere of Venus.
Galaxies also did not obey Newton’s “law of universal gravitation”, they did not have enough mass of real objects that make them up to comply with Newton’s gravity formula, and theorists postulated the missing mass in the form of “dark matter” that does not interact with real matter except for gravity.
Mordechai Milgrom did not accept the idea of “dark matter”. In 1983 he, accepting Newton’s false formulas for large accelerations, proposed to slightly correct them for very small accelerations. Milgrom’s theory is called “Modified Newtonian Dynamics”, or MOND. Milgrom stated that, since the gravitational accelerations of stars in galaxies are very, very small, about 10-8 centimeters per second squared, which is one hundred billionth of the free fall acceleration on Earth, then with such small accelerations, in principle, modification of the formulas is possible Newton.
Real distances in space, both inside our Galaxy and between galaxies, determined in different ways, turned out to be less than the conventional distances determined using Newton’s gravity formula.
In 2023, South Korean astrophysicists, after studying the motions of over 26,000 long-period separated binary star systems, measured gravity-induced accelerations and found that they do not follow either Newton’s gravity formula or Einstein’s general relativity formula. It was theoretically impossible to stick “dark matter” to a pair of stars, and the Koreans decided to accept the modification of Newton’s theory according to Milgrom to “explain” their observations.
In general, the reality is that cosmology and astrophysics have not yet become sciences. They are an archive of opinions of subjects that are not adequate in reality and an archive of observations that are not united in any way into a system that allows one to navigate in the real world.